Democracy and Commodification Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Democracy and Commodification - Essay Example In the context of commodification, services that would be normally under the control of the state came under the control of the private sector, a fact that leads to the increase of cost involved (Giddens and Griffiths 367). Thus, the access to these services becomes more difficult and even, impossible, for a high majority of the population. From this point of view, commodification leads to the limitation of democracy, a political system that is based on equality and fairness in terms of law (Giddens and Griffiths 367). The potential limitation of democracy through commodification can be made understood by referring primarily to the cases of welfare regimes that are based on commodification and those that are not commodified. These cases would show how modern political systems could be related to commodification. Then examples could be provided for showing the relationship between democracy and commodification in practice. Giddens and Griffiths (2006) explain how political systems can be related to commodification: a) the social democratic regime promotes the provision of welfare services for all citizens with no exception, at a universal level (Giddens and Griffiths 367). Scandinavian states, that have this type of regime, are examples of states supporting the non-commodified political system; b) in ‘conservative/ corporatist states, such as France and Germany’ (Giddens and Griffiths 367), welfare services are non-commodified but they are not fully independent from the capital. Indeed, in the above states, the potential of each citizen to access the welfare services is differentiated according to his social status (Giddens and Griffiths 367); c) there is also the case of the liberal states, like United States, where ‘welfare services are fully commodified’ (Giddens and Griffith 367). It should be noted that the use of specific practices, in regard to the management of an economy, does not, necessarily, indicate the commodification of t he local political system (Williams 157). In democracy also, a similar issue would exist. At this point the potential influence of commodification on democracy should be explained using relevant examples. In all states where democratic regimes exist media is commonly used for the promotion of specific political messages. Reference can be made, as an example, to the use of media for supporting a particular legislative text or for persuading the public that a specific political decision, for example the establishment of an area of entertainment, is fully justified in terms of public interest. In regard to this issue, emphasis should be given to the following fact: in most states, media is used for influencing public opinion

Portfolio Report Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words - 1

Portfolio Report - Research Paper Example This information is in accordance with her mother who can remember these problems. The student also is found to have problem with tutoring. Her mother is concerned that her child may have some kind of reading disability because she too had trouble learning in school, but up until now has no evidence or documentation to support this. The student has been known to have some strength is certain areas but weak in other areas. Her strong areas include expressive vocabulary, reading comprehension, oral comprehension, sentence comprehension, and listening comprehension. She is cheery and enthusiastic and loves horses and writing her own stories. She is organized and loves to draw as well as coloring. She has much interest in science. She has been found to have problems with decoding skills, oral reading, reading, writing, math, and numeracy operations. Her academic weaknesses happen despite that she hardly misses her classes. The student is learning within a contusive educational environmental. The teachers are qualified and there are a number of bright students who are ready to assist her. Besides, all the necessary resources are provided. Her general academic achievement is not good. She is relatively poor in math, numeric problems, writing, reading, science, and art. She however seem to love some of these areas. Despite her love for some of the areas or subjects, she ends up performing poorly. Her attention is poor since she makes careless mistakes in school work all the time. She also is not able to stay focused on a task for periods of time that would be expected of peers, which happens all the time. She always avoids school work or homework when possible. She also has difficulty returning to a task when focus has been lost for a short period. Besides, her assignments are ever incomplete. In the case of her selective attention, she does not seem to listen when being spoken to, she is easily distracted by objects,

Relationship Between Inflation And Exchange Rate Economics Essay

Relationship Between Inflation And Exchange Rate Economics Essay Inflation is an increase in the price of a set of goods and services that is representative of the economy as a whole and an exchange rate is the current market price for which one currency can be exchanged for another. If the U.S. exchange rate for the Pakistani Rupee is Rs. 85, this means that one American Dollar can be exchanged for 85 Pakistani Rupees. Different journals give their opinion about relationship between inflation and exchange rate. Now we explain journals views about this relationship:- Haldane (1995)  [1]  present the design of inflation target is linked umbilical to the welfare cost of inflation. Yates (1995)  [2]  the design of many inflation targeting regimes includes specific exception for trouble that are predictable to outcome in momentary price level actions lone. This has been observing that optimal design of inflation depends upon the costs of inflation. Depending on how agents form expectations of future inflation, direct exchange rate effects coming through import prices may result only in price level shifts. This arises perceive that a portion of the observed inflation in the CPI index is the result of changes in import prices that are drives by recent movements in the exchange rate, and they form their expectations of future CPI inflation by looking through or ignoring these effects. Svensson (1997)  [3]  present the objectives of monetary policy which serves to place the choice of exchange rate and inflation targeting. Monetary police can control inflation and exchange rate in the long run. In the short run monetary policy can influence the inflation that have adverse effects. Since central bank control the exchange rate and nominal exchange rate does not have an inherent significant for welfare and economic growth. The choice between an exchange rate target and an explicit inflation target should be seen as the choice between different intermediate targets in order to fulfill the goal for monetary policy. Monetary policy cannot prevent such variability in the real exchange rate. But the negative consequences of such variability can be minimized with an inflation target. Bleaney and Fielding (1999)  [1]  present those developing countries which peg their exchange rate achieve lower inflation. Developing countries face a trade-off choosing exchange rate regime floating the exchange rate allows the authorities greater freedom to respond to exogenous shocks, so that they achieve greater stability of output (and inflation) than under pegged rates, at the expense of higher mean inflation. The hypothesis can be attributed to the inability of developing countries to import the anti-inflation creditability of the advance countries. The widespread adoption of floating exchange rates in the developing world has had a significant cost, with faster inflation than in the typical pegged-rate country. Evans Lyons (1999)  [2]  have used previous data on quotes and transactions to link up the activities of traders and asset prices over several months. They find a strong relationship between customer order flow and the DM/US$ exchange rate. A data set covering customer dealer trading and brokered interdealer trading become available, the order flow picture can be completed. The affects of increasing order-flow transparency may be important: unlike most other financial markets, the FX market is unregulated in this respect. McCarthy (2000)  [1]  finds that the impact of import prices and exchange rate on consumer price index in industrialized countries. The exchange rate has modest affect on domestic price inflation while import prices have a strong affect. This framework is incorporates a distribution chain of prices, has been widely adopted by a number of authors for analyzing the exchange rate pass through for various countries e.g. Leigh and Rossi (2002) for Turkey, Ashok (2002) for south Africa etc. Taylor (2000)  [2]  argued that pass-through is highest when exchange rate changes are perceived to be persistent and prices adjustment because of the expectations of the public. The pass-through will low because of low inflation. The pass-through changes in costs to prices, a decline that is frequently characterized as the reduction in the pricing power of firms. The paper alludes to the relative version pf purchasing power parity, which claims that base of equilibrium exchange rate between the two currencies will be determined by the relative movements in the price levels in the two countries. Change in the exchange rate has positive relation to the higher domestic prices. In this equation, there are E stands for exchange rate in terms of domestic currency per unit of foreign currency. Stands for foreign currency prices of the imported goods and P stands for domestic currency. When marginal cost is constant and markups of prices over costs is also constant than pass-through will be complete. Grauwe (2000)  [1]  analyze the implications of the view for transmission of monetary shocks. Monetary policy has different effects on the exchange rate and the price level depending on the nature of these beliefs. He claims that under the sets of beliefs that dominate the foreign exchange market, the ECB would found it difficult to control the rate of inflation. Odusola and Akinlo (2001)  [2]  present the existence of mixed results on the impacts of the exchange rate depreciation on the output in both medium and long term. The flexible exchange rate system does not necessary to adopt and lead the output expansion in the short-run. The discipline, confidence, creditability on the part of the government is essential. The official exchange rate shocks were followed by increases in prices, money supply and parallel exchange rate. VAR models suggested that the impacts of lending rate and inflation on the output were negative. The output and parallel exchange rate are the major determinants of inflation dynamics in Nigeria. The developments in the official exchange rate generate the positive impacts on the parallel exchange rate. It revealed that lending rate and inflation generated substantial destabilizing the impacts on the output, the monetary authoritys plays and critical role in creating an enabling environment for growth. Choudhri, Faruqee and Hakura (2002)  [3]  examine the performance of open economies all the way through macroeconomic models illumination the exchange rate pass-through in a extensive variety of the prices. He has been used the model based on VAR models and concludes that best-fitting models incorporate a quantity of features painted by diverse strands of the literature: sticky prices, sticky wages, allocation expenditure and a amalgamation of local and manufacturer currency pricing. Bhundia (2002)  [1]  analyzes the quantity to which fluctuations in the so-called exchange rate lead through to customer prices in South Africa. While the regular pass-through is established to be near to the ground, proof from a structural vector auto regression suggests it is much greater for supposed (against genuine) shocks. However, shocks to producer prices tend to have a considerable impact on consumer prices. He also found that pass-through is much higher for nominal rather than real shocks. The Rossi (2002) finds that the pass-through from the exchange rate to domestic prices continues for a year but is more intensive in the first four months, the pass-through to WPI is more pronounced than CPI, forecast of inflation. Rabnal also prove that pass-through to WPI is more pronounced than pass-through CPI. McFarlance (2002)  [2]  present the affects of exchange rate changing on one of the following (1) import export prices (2) consumer prices (3) investment and also (4) trade volumes. The previous study on Jamaica tells that the pass-through on prices and wages are significant. The inflationary impact of exchange rate depreciation in Jamaica has declined in recent years. Pass-through to the CPI is approximately 80% complete six months after initial shocks to the nominal exchange rate for the 1990 to 1995. And than after pass-through is less complete at approximately 45% in the 1996 to 2001 six months after an initial shocks to the nominal exchange rate. In addition to, the pass-through to CPI excluding starchy in agriculture to the CPI over the two sub-samples. The pass- through is approximately 70% in 1990 to 1995 complete six months after an initial shock to the nominal exchange rate. These results show that the speed of the pass-through has slowed significantly in the last five years. This situation shows the lower demand and structural transformation in the Jamaicas economy. Additionally there has been increased competition in the domestic economy: this coupled with the fall in output following the financial crises of the mid to late 1990s would have had an impact on per capita income and hence aggregate demand. Carr and Rebello (2002)  [1]  analyze the feasibility and complication of inflation targeting in the developing countries. There is wealth of econometrics attempting to demonstrate the success of various inflation regimes at decreasing inflation. The success of a county is in low inflation. Taylor (1991) shows the monetary authorities react to other variables besides inflation, such as output and exchange rate. Stylized facts indicate that a common implication of inflation targeting is an appreciating exchange rate due to capital inflows. The exchange rate appreciation is the result of inflation targeting with open capital markets. If prices are set as a markup over costs, than prices will be quite sensitive to changes in the exchange rate. The exchange rate affects the equilibrium of the iso-inflation curve. The increase in capital inflows causes the exchange rate to appreciate. The ultimate rate of inflation depends on the relative affects of the exchange rate, interest rate, a nd output. The inflation rate, exchange rate and interest rate dynamics evolve over time given initial short run equilibrium conditions. Berument and Pasaogullari (2003)  [2]  have reviewed in their study, that there is negative relationship between output and real exchange rate in Turkey. They analyzed that their exist long-term negative relationship between inflation and exchange rate and output. They run different VAR models and estimate the forecast error variance decompositions and impulse responses obtained from the VAR models were examined and they also analyzed the bivariate relationship between the set of the variables of interest. However, from Granger causality test, a significant causality between the variables could not be found. They found that a long-run relationship exists among inflation, exchange rate and output, which led us to employ VAR models. After including different variables in VAR models like real exchange rate, inflation, output, interest rate, capital account and current account real exchange rate movements were proved to be important in the variability of output. They suggest that to limit the detrimental effects of devaluation, the overvaluation of the currency must be prevented, and there is no easy way to keep output costs at moderate levels after devaluation. These finding suggest that an overvalued domestic currency may initially result in increased output but may create the risk of a financial crisis, which, in turn, may cause exchange rate depreciation and subsequent output losses. Carranza and Sanchez (2004)  [1]  explain the pass-through between exchange rate and inflation with the degree of dollarization. They suggest that those countries which have high dollarization demonstrate greater pass-through coefficients. With the use of fifteen samples emerging-market countries with the different degrees of dollarization , they find that pass-through in highly dollarized economies is indeed higher, but it also tend to be more asymmetric than in economies with a lower degree of dollarization. They define that there is negative pass-through coefficient during economic downtime. The reason for this irregularity is the unconstructive balance-sheet result that can lead the constructive competition effect generated by real exchange rate depreciations. Honohan and Lane (2004)  [1]  argued that exchange rate movements have important effects on inflation divergence within the EMU. The inflation rates of euro appreciation (2002-2003) as well as periods of euro depreciation (1999-2001). According to Irish case: in 2003 the pass-through of inflation and exchange rate was already under way and consumer price inflation stopped in its tracks. Inflation fell to zero in response to the strengthening of the euro vis-à  -vis the dollar. There is lagged correlation between Irish CPI inflation and the level of nominal effective exchange rate. They suggest the variety of regressions to exp-lain annual inflation differentials across the Euro zone over the 1999-2001 periods. They found the variations in nominal effective exchange rate movements explaining divergent inflation rate during this period, although the HICP data suggest that this largely operates via the influence of exchange rates on national output gaps. The exchange rate channel i s strongly significant for each of the inflation measures. There is also some evidence of asymmetries in that exchange rate depreciation passes through into inflation more quickly than does exchange rate appreciation. Finally our analysis with quarterly data 1999.1-2004 confirms the powerful connection between exchange rate and inflation. with the passage of time, it should be possible to construct a more complete accounting of the dynamic structure of the relationship between these variables than is possible with only five years of data. Rutasitara (2004)  [2]  explains that Tanzania in 1960s faced the inflation and there has been interest, therefore, in inflation performance and the role of the exchange rate in the process. When inflation rate rise, then erode the value of money holdings, trade flows, investors confidence etc. the controls covered prices (including wages, interest rate, goods prices, and exchange rate) and allocation of domestic credit and foreign exchange, the exchange rate became prominent in the policy debate on the internal and external imbalances. Until then, the parallel exchange rate had an upper hand on the rate of inflation compared with the official exchange rate. The impact of foreign prices and exchange rate depends upon existing pricing arrangements, which in Tanzania have ranged from controls to markets. While a more or less stable nominal exchange rate is desirable for trade and investment decisions, it is more important to maintain the rate at sustainable levels. The level and pr ospects of the foreign reserves position are important in this respect. The exchange rate remains precariously sensitive and easily vulnerable to exogenous shocks, domestic economic factors, and non-economic events like social and political instability that may generate a desire to shift financial assets into a foreign currency considered to be more secure. Bleaney and Francisco (2004)  [1]  define that if the monetary authorities adopt an accommodatory stance by allowing the money supply to respond more to the price shock, then inflation will be more persistence. Smith (1991), Alogoskoufis (1992) and Obstfeld (1995) compare persistence estimates for OECD countries over different periods characterized by different exchange rate regimes. When monetary authorities in the OECD countries began to recognize that a tough response to inflation shocks was necessary to keep inflationary expectations down. Our results show that inflation persistence is much the same under soft pegs as under floating. It is significantly lower under hard pegs (currency boards or a shared currency), where the scope for monetary accommodation of inflation shocks is much reduced. Adolfson (2004)  [1]  suggest that the pass-through from exchange rate changes to prices in Swedish currency of imported goods is discussed as well as conceivable reasons for why these changes are not passed through completely in the short-run. The inflation rate in Sweden had recently been low. inflation = weight x domestic inflation +(1-weight ) x imported inflation Where weight is domestic inflations share of total inflation. As a result, conditions in Sweden will also affect imported inflation, not only via the exchange rate but also through an impact on foreign exporters prices for Swedish importers. The relative significance of the exchange rate and world market prices for Swedish import prices is difficult to determine, however, since it is rare that data is available that would enable a comparison of the price of a certain product in the Swedish market. Rather, the recent fall in import prices seems to be largely attributable to exchange rate developments. T5hus in the short-run, the pass-through from exchange rate changes to Swedish import prices appear to be limited. There is weak relationship between exchange arte and prices in the foreign market. Bailliu and Fujii (2004)  [2]  argued that credible monetary policy play an important role to decrease the inflation in industrialized countries. Many industrialized countries that the extant of pass-through of exchange rate into buyer prices has turned down. They argued that ERPT is primarily a function of the persistence of exchange rate and price shocks, which tend to be reduced in an environment where inflation is low and monetary policy is more credible. Using the data of 11 developed countries more than the period from 1977-2001, they evidence to support the hypothesis that EPRT declines with a shift to a low-inflation surroundings bring about by modify in the financial policy control. The consequence proposes that pass-through to import; manufacturer and consumer price inflation reduces following the inflation stabilization that occurred in most of the developed countries in the early 1990s. Ruiz (2005)  [1]  in this study describes the effects of inflation and exchange rate uncertainty on the rate of real economic activity.  He explains in his literature that these two issues and discrete issues.  Note whether the frequency of inflation or the frequency of exchange rates on economic growth in the various actions or financial activity.  In this paper, the author tries to address these issues by analyzing the size and direction of the effect of: inflation and the frequency in the exchange rate on real economic activity.  Through the introduction of dummy variables and control of monetary policy change (change of inflation targeting and flexible exchange rate).   Autoregressive using a variety of conditional (GARCH) rates of inflation and exchange rates, and predictive models obtained conditional variance errors and measures of uncertainty.  The study results indicate that the increase in the higher level of uncertainty, causing inflation farms, and vice ve rsa for the Colombian economy.  In addition, the issue of inflation just to get out of the frequency of negative impact. Goldstein and Lardy (2005)  [2]  define as the weight of emerging economies in the global economy has increased. This is particularly the case with chinas exchange rate policy since it is now the worlds third largest importer and fourth largest exporter. Thus, any adjustment of Chinas exchange rate regime will have to maintain most existing capital controls until the domestic banks are further strengthened. China could simultaneously and immediately remove the restrictions on capital flows and let the market determine value of the RMB. The constraints mean the search is for second-best policy options. International codes of conduct for exchange rate policy are no less necessary than those for trade policy; without them, there can be a free-for-all that is in no ones interest, least of all the emerging economies that depend so heavily on access to international markets. Currency manipulation is not a narrow academic issue, akin to how many angels can fit on the head of a pin. It i s instead a legitimate practical concern in establishing a level international playing field. Grauwe (2005)  [1]  gives their views on the relationship between inflation and exchange rate that exchange rate regime and inflation is that pegged exchange rate contribute to lower and more stable inflation. The exchange rate fixity does not reduce economic growth in the South Eastern and Central European countries. In countries, with strong institutional framework (based on central bank independence and developed money markets), low inflation can be achieved without any specific commitment to an explicit exchange rate target. In large (closed) economies, inflation targets-which imply freely floating exchange rates-will not affect the volatility of inflation. On the contrary, by fixing exchange rates to the euro, the countries at the EMU periphery can reap the benefits of more trade and lower interest rates. The view that entry into the euro area will constrain the growth potential is not warranted. The evidence also shows that for these small, open economies, stabilizing excha nge rates has been a source of macroeconomic stability. The Mundell framework seems to be the right one to use in thinking about the desirability of joining the euro area. The risk of to join the EMU will be particularly strong, if labor marker flexibility is low. Vargas (2005)  [1]  explains monetary policy in Colombia converged to a pure, full-fledged inflation-targeting strategy after the abandonment of exchange rate bands in 1999. Colombia had experienced moderate inflation (15-30 percent annual rates) for about 20 years and a crawling-peg regime with capital controls had been in place since 1967. In the context of a monetary policy strategy based on the use of intermediate monetary targets. Thus, a floating regime was established and monetary policy converged to a full-fledged inflation-targeting framework. Monetary and foreign exchange policy had two main initial objectives. The first was to continue gradual disinflation toward its long-term target and the second was to restore international reserves to levels that would limit the external vulnerability of the economy. Starting from a deep recession, the policy stance has been expansionary. Inflation has declined along decreasing targets, output has recovered and international reserv es have reached levels that limit the external vulnerability of the economy. The most convincing hypothesis about the rationale for intervention in Colombia is the argument in favor of managed floating. Thus, fiscal imbalances pose a threat to the credibility and power of monetary policy through several political economy channels. Angkinand and Willet (2006)  [2]  Studying the effects of the choice of exchange rate regimes on the likelihood of financial crisis in a sample of a very talented market and developing countries for the period 1990-2003.  It is a multi-channel testing of potential impacts of exchange rate regimes to crises.  They found that soft Pegs associated with other central systems with high potential economic crises of the regulation reform difficult corner and rates are very flexible, and partly because it seems to be associated with more loans in foreign currency are not protected and extension  extreme credit of the Interior.  Also affect the test through the channel of the monetary crises caused by the strong relationship between monetary and financial crises, and between the soft Pegs and monetary crisis.  These effects are much stronger in the market, the increase in developing countries. Allsopp, Kara and Nelson (2006)  [1]  define the United Kingdoms monetary policy strategy can be characterized as one of floating exchange rates and inflation forecast targeting. The specification of exchange rate and inflation relationship implied by standard New Keynesian models, which postulate that imports serve as finished consumer goods, is inconsistent with the U.K empirical evidence. It is a well-known principle in the New Keynesian literature that the index whose inflation rate is targeted should refer to the set of prices which are sticky and which prevent the instantaneous achievement of the flexible-price equilibrium. The broader policy implications arise from the way in which openness is modeled and the way in which exchange rate changes impact on inflation. In the standard model, there is a direct and immediate effect on the price of imported consumer goods, which then impacts directly on inflation. When imports are intermediate goods, following the specification us ed and recommended by McCallum and Nelson (1999), the U.K. evidence can be reconciled with optimizing theory. In particular, the weak relationship observed between consumer price inflation and exchange-rate changes, despite strong rates of pass-through, can be rationalized. Furthermore, this modeling strategy implies that it is appropriate to target consumer price inflation. Monetary policy regimes do matter for the exchange rate/inflation relationship, but not in the manner argued in the literature. Several studies have appealed to the role of monetary policy regime in blocking the pass-through of exchange-rate movements to imported goods prices. The U.K. evidence instead is consistent with substantial pass-through to import prices across regimes. Adjustment of the relative price of imports is often a desirable response to real shocks hitting the economy. To some extent, this adjustment may be facilitated by permitting a one-time rise in the aggregate price level even if at the cos t of inflation temporarily moving away from the target. The U.K. experience under inflation targeting, however, suggests that only minor deviations of inflation from target would be required for this purpose. the exchange rate should be taken into account only via their influence on the forecast for consumer price inflation are open to the criticism that standard models suggest that consumer prices constitute too broad an index to target, and that the imported component should be removed from the targeted inflation rate. A properly-measured output gap (i.e. one which takes into account the negative impact on potential output of a higher real cost of imports) is an adequate summary of the implications of exchange-rate movements for welfare. Edwards (2006)  [1]  says that in many countries the nominal exchange rate is often used as a means of curb inflation.  Currency crisis are common, and usually the result of acute (Real Madrid), excessive exchange rate. It affects inflation, exports, imports and economic activity. For decades the vast majority of emerging countries had rigid exchange rate regimes. This move away from exchange rate rigidity has tended to take place at the same time as many countries have embraced inflation targeting as a way of conducting monetary policy. The conjunction of IT and flexible rates has brought to the center of the discussion a host of new policy issues, including issues related to the role of the exchange rate in monetary policy, volatility and the relationship between exchange rate changes and inflation. He addressed three of this issues: (a) the relationship between the pass-through and the effectiveness of nominal exchange rates in IT regimes; (b) the effects of IT on exchange r ate volatility; and (c) the role (or potential role) of exchange rate changes on the monetary rule in IT countries. Countries that have adopted IT have experienced a declined in the pas-through from exchange rate changes to inflation. In many of the countries in the sample this decline in the pass-through has been different from CPI inflation than for PPI inflation. The adoption of IT monetary policy procedures has not resulted in an increase in (nominal or real) exchange rate volatility. there is some evidence that IT countries with a history of high an unstable inflation tend to take into account explicitly developments in the nominal exchange rate when conducting monetary policy. Kamin (2006)  [1]  Describes the comparative research between the response to changes in inflation rates in competitive exchange rates in various regions of the world.  The report shows that the empirical relationship between inflation and the level of real exchange rate, which has been documented in Mexico earlier research by the author, covering a wide range of other countries.  This can be a dilemma for policy makers because it means you cannot lower inflation and increase the competitiveness of exports access to the same time.  In response to the inflation of the real exchange rate is much higher in Latin America, Asia or in industrialized countries.  This difference in the responsiveness of inflation is not a full explanation of the date of inflation or the degree of openness to foreign trade.  It may be less sensitive to inflation, real exchange rate in Asia than in Latin America is going to allow Asian countries continues to focus on always maintaining competitiv eness and export growth.<

Migrating: The Machine in the Garden :: Four Freedoms Roosevelt Essays

Migrating: The Machine in the Garden On January 6, 1941, Franklin D. Roosevelt addressed Congress with a speech outlining the four freedoms that every American should have. In context, one must realize that this was before World War II - before the attack on Pearl Harbor that would occur in December of that year. His speech said that as Americans, we each should expect to have by right - freedom of speech; freedom to worship God in any way we choose; freedom from want - that is, the necessities of life such as food and shelter; and freedom from fear. The speech so moved artist Norman Rockwell that he went on to paint his famous series known as the "Four Freedoms." Rockwell's paintings would later be used to help in the war effort by advertising the sale of war bonds. The rhetoric of the day made Americans feel a responsibility to his or her country. When war broke, Americans were eager to help. Many left the comfort of their parents' homes to fight in the war effort. They left with the images of Rockwell and words of FDR fresh in their minds. In 1945, nine million American servicemen and women came home from war. No longer were they children - living in their parents' home - but young men and women eager to build their lives. Between 1946 and 1964 over seventy-six million baby boomers were born. There was a tremendous need for housing. People such as William Levitt understood that need. In 1947, he broke ground on the first of three towns he would build. He bought one thousand acres of potato farms on New York's Long Island and started building. Eventually he built 17,000 affordable homes in what became known as Levittown, New York. "The Rancher - A New House in Levittown - Special Introductory Price - $8,990 - $57 a month! No cash required from veterans!" Photo borrowed from Levittown, 2002. Levittown was the beginning of the mass migration to the suburbs, however, the idea dates to the 1930's with Roosevelt's "New Deal in the Suburbs" (Christensen, 1986, p. 72). The Greenbelt Program was designed to develop urban areas into garden cities. Not only would this model program show that a city could develop urban planning to incorporate ideals and alleviate housing problems of the day, but would translate into much needed jobs.

Environmental Science Chapter 18 Review Essay

Chapters 18-1 & 18-2 Review Section 1 Review – 1. List six forms of renewable energy, and compare the advantages and disadvantages of each. Pros: 1) Passive solar heating may hold a great advantage for a homeowner if there is reliable sunlight that is able to shine into the home and create warmth. Also, it will reduce energy bills in their liquid even when the sun is not shining. 3) Wind power is cheap, clean energy that is the average household. 2) Active solar heating systems have the advantage of storing heat in essentially free once the infrastructure is paid for. 4) Biomass fuel is in abundant supply and can convert waste into energy. 5) Hydroelectric energy may be expensive to build, but are inexpensive to operate. Unlike fossil fuel plants, hydroelectric dams do not release air pollutants into the atmosphere that cause acid precipitation. They also last longer than most other plants. 6) Geothermal energy is almost entirely emission free and can be built underground. Cons: 1) Passive solar heating may only be seen as an effective use of power if the climate is able to provide enough sunlight. 2) Active solar heating plans are expensive and in most areas, an active solar system will be unable to capture enough sunlight to replace the heating and electrical systems in a house. 3) Wind power can be a failed energy source, for wind is inconsistent, unsteady and unpredictable. 4) Biomass fuel is costly to produce and needs a substructure of fossil fuel for production and use. It can result in habitat loss, deforestation, and harmful air pollution. 5) Hydroelectric energy is directly related to how much water is available, thus potentially causing a drought. They also relate to interventions in nature due to damming of water, changed water flow and the construction of roads and power lines. 6) Geothermal power is also expensive to obtain and must be managed carefully so that it is not depleted . 2. Describe the differences between passive solar heating, active solar heating, and photovoltaic energy. Passive solar energy uses the sun’s energy to heat something directly while active solar heating and photovoltaic energy uses energy from the sun that is gathered by collectors. 3. Describe how hydroelectric energy, geothermal energy, and geothermal energy pumps work. Hydroelectric energy is produced by heating up water to produce steam, which then spins the turbines and generates electricity. Geothermal energy  is created when steam rises through a well and drives turbines, which generate electricity. The leftover liquid water is then pumped back into the hot rock. Geothermal energy pumps are used so when the ground is warmer, the heat is transferred from the ground to warm the house and when the ground is cool, heat is transferred from the house to the ground to cool the house. 4. Explain whether all renewable energy sources have their origin in energy from the sun. Only a small fraction of the sun’s energy reaches the Earth. However, this energy is enough to power the wind, plant growth, and the water cycle. So nearly all renewable energy comes directly or indirectly from the sun. Section 2 Review – 1. Describe three alternative energy technologies, and identify two ways that hydrogen could be used as fuel source in the future. Three examples of alternative energy technologies are tidal power, ocean thermal energy conversion, and solar chimneys. Tidal power is when the tide rises, water flows behind a dam and when the tide falls, the water is trapped behind the damn. When water in the reservoir is released, it turns a turbine that generates electricity. OTEC is when warm surface water is brought to a boil in a vacuum chamber. The boiling water produces steam to drive a turbine that generates electricity. Solar chimneys use the greenhouse effect to produce moving air that escapes through a central chimney where wind turbines make electricity. Hydrogen can be burned as fuel, for it does not contain carbon, so it does not release pollutants associated with burning fossil fuels and biomass. Hydrogen isotopes can also be used in a controlled nuclear fusion reaction. 2. List as many w ays as you can for individuals and communities to conserve energy. – Replacing light bulbs with new energy efficient models – Adjusting the temperature of your home while away or sleeping – Wash clothing with cold water – Install low-flow showerheads and faucets – Turning out lights in vacant rooms 3. Describe the difference between energy conservation and energy efficiency. Energy efficiency is the percentage of energy put into a system that does useful work while energy conservation means saving energy. 4. What factors influence a person’s choice to conserve energy? Factors that may influence a person’s choice to conserve energy are to help lower their energy bill and help the environment.

Aftermath – creative writing

BANG! I woke. I opened my eyes but was unable to see. The dust had settled like concrete boulders into the corners of my eyes! Everything was deadly still. The wind fiercely gave a shout. A black cloud stood dominating the demolished town. I moved my hands to wipe my irritated eyes, boulders, brickwork, broken furniture and complete devastation stood before me. A ray of light appeared through cracks of the rubble. The boulders took on features like monsters and ogres – making my chest tighten with fear. I vociferated for help. No one was around. I was scared: Petrified. I managed to pull my achy bones out from the debris, the pain was horrific. I could feel the cold misty wind stroke my face. In the far distance I could hear low voices that became louder and louder: hysterical screams. I attempted to crawl my way towards the noise – in hope for help. Shards of glass dug into the palms of my hands. Warm blood trickled down my knees, my throat tightened with the dirty dense dust. I could taste the fear. Behind me I heard a crackle. I turned. The flames of fire danced before my eyes. The heat scorched my face like the hottest sauna could. The smoke was a ferocious lion ready to pounce. I moved as quickly as I could, using all the energy I had. Slowly crawling like a young baby. I felt hopeless: disconsolate! The further I crawled the louder the low voices became. It was a horrendous atmosphere! The town had become a tragedy! Buildings around me had collapsed surrounded with sneaky smoke, brickwork and furniture were slowly burning away, the air was thick full of unknown flumes, why wasn't anyone around? What had happened? No building stood tall, burnt out office work scattered the debris, ashes and litter played in the wind. My body filled with just one emotion: anxiety. Cars around me were smashed and strangled with fire. I watched in dismay. Crashing noises appeared. Brickwork collapsed- followed with a speechless smash. More rubble fell with bold broken bang! Screaming voices emerged. I crawled towards the screams. I was able to hear sirens wailing in the faint distance carried by the wind. I began to see flashing lights though the dark debris. There was only one word to describe it: hope. Suddenly I glimpsed with the squint of the eye. The site of panicked people was ahead of me. My heart skipped a beat. I shouted, â€Å"Hello, can you hear me†. No one replied. â€Å"Can you hear me?† I screamed. I waited. I listened. A young lady ran over to me. â€Å"Its okay, you're safe now,† announced the lady. â€Å"What's happened? What's happened?† I repeated. She didn't answer. She grabbed my arm and wrapped it round her neck giving me support. We approached the flashing lights. Countless amounts of ambulances and fire engines appeared. Hundreds of people were gathered staring at the ruined town. Many people were hysterically screaming and crying. Dead bodies were covered with white cloths. I became speechless. Tears ran down my face. â€Å"Its over, you survived†, quietly explained the young lady. I took a big breath. I closed my eyes. I thought. One word repeated through my head: lucky.

How is Thomasina presented by Stoppard in Arcadia, and what methods and techniques does he use Essays

How is Thomasina presented by Stoppard in Arcadia, and what methods and techniques does he use Essays How is Thomasina presented by Stoppard in Arcadia, and what methods and techniques does he use Paper How is Thomasina presented by Stoppard in Arcadia, and what methods and techniques does he use Paper Essay Topic: Literature In Arcadia, Tom Stoppard uses many different techniques and methods to affect our opinion of Thomasina, one of the main characters in the play. Many of these techniques are successful, as by the end of the play the majority of the audience will have formed a strong opinion of Thomasina. The opening few lines that she speaks in the play are all questions; immediately this gives a good first impression as the audience can see that Thomasina is not afraid to be inquisitive. She asks, Septimus, what is carnal embrace? We can then see that she is not satisfied with the answer she is given, leading her to ask, Is that all? This gives the impression that she is very clever and not afraid to ask questions of her elders. In the first scene, this creates a favourable opinion as the audience can sense that Thomasina will be an interesting character to have in the play. We are also given the slight idea by Stoppard that Thomasina does not ask the questions entirely in innocence, and has perhaps simply asked them to make Septimus nervous. This again makes the audience feel that she is very intelligent. It also creates ambiguity around the character for the audience as they are curious to Thomasinas true personality. The audience is clearly shown Thomasinas intelligence throughout the play; she constructs her arguments as well (sometimes better) as any adults around her or those that we see in the future. When asked what she knows of carnal embrace (having brought the subject up to deflect attention from Septimus), she replies: Everything, thanks to Septimus. In my opinion, Mr Noakess scheme for the garden is perfect. It is a Salvator! This method of deflection of attention onto her by Thomasina is extremely clever, as she senses the trouble Septimus has got himself into and quickly takes control of the situation. By saying more than one point that she can be questioned on, (both Everything, thanks to Septimus, and It is a Salvator! ), she gives Septimus time to think of an explanation. This is because the audience can then see that the adults in the scene are trying to follow Thomasinas diversion of the conversation. Both Lady Croom and Mr Noakes become confused, highlighting Thomasinas clear intelligence over them to the audience. Her intelligence and knowledge also makes the audience feel inferior to Thomasina, as there are points in the play when it is hard for us to understand exactly what she means. The audience also warms to Thomasina more because of this, as she has helped Septimus out. Also, as it the line almost lands Septimus in a lot of trouble, the audience begins to wonder about her motives again, this creates curiosity around the character and we find her more interesting. Although for much of the play the audience could feel inferior to Thomasina, there are also times in the play when the audience is made to feel other emotions towards her, which make us feel superior. In the opening scene, Lady Croom asks Thomasina How old are you this morning? This line from Lady Croom demonstrates to the audience that she clearly does not spend any time with her daughter, so little that she does not even know her age. She also asks her age again later on in the play. This discovery makes the audience feel sorry for Thomasina, as we are led to believe she has had little affection shown towards her in her life. Members of the audience are most likely to be sympathetic with her as opposed to looking down on her because of it this is because we begin to understand how she might be feeling. When Thomasina and Septimus are talking of Cleopatra, the audience also finds out that Thomasina is very sceptical about love in general. She says: It only needs a Roman general to drop anchor outside the window and away goes the Emperor like a christening mug into a pawn shop. This line appears to be said with a bitter tone of voice. As the line in general is based on the concept of love, this makes the audience feel quite sad, as Thomasina is so young and would perhaps feel that someone as young as she is should not be so bitter. It also gives the impression again that she has not seen a lot of love, both around her and towards her in her life. This would have been common in rich families in the 19th century, with many wealthy mothers having too many social engagements to permanently take care of any children. The audience also feels sorry for her when Septimus cons her into translating a very difficult piece of Latin. We see her struggle with the translations, and end up with something that does not flow very well. As this is the first time in the play when we see her intellectually struggling with something, it is one of the first real moments when we do not feel inferior. In this way she becomes more of a natural character to the audience as it is more child-like. However, upon being shown in the play that she has been tricked by Septimus, the audience immediately feels sorry for her. This is a clever method by Stoppard to make the audience pity Thomasina, and perhaps relate to her more. The power struggle between Septimus and Thomasina is ongoing throughout the play, and the audience can see that there has been no real winner in it so far. Thomasina calls Septimus a Cheat! several times in quick succession, and she is incredibly angry with him. This fact that she is so visibly upset makes it clear to the audience that she is disappointed disappointed that Septimus would result to such low methods to get the power back. We then feel sorry for Thomasina, as Septimus is probably the person that the audience sees her closest to in the play, having seen that she receives little attention from her family. It is also the first time that we have seen her quite so vulnerable and one of the few times in the entire play that she shows such strong emotion towards anyone. Many children in those times would have had tutors, but it probably would have been rare for the relationship between them to be so close. As she reacts so fiercely to Septimus actions, in a way it undermines her previous speech on the downfalls of love the outburst of emotion perhaps gives the audience the impression that she was indeed putting on a front in earlier scenes. Again, this makes the audience feel sympathy towards Thomasina as it helps us to realise how lonely she is. The relationship between Thomasina and Septimus is in complete contrast to the one between Bernard and Chloe Thomasina and Septimus have many intellectual conversations and seem to enjoy each others company. There also seems to be more respect between them. Having two pairs of people in the different time periods shows the differences in the times i. e. that there was much more formality and politeness in the earlier times. The conversation is also more contrasted, mainly in that Bernard and Chloe talk more about their personal lives with each other than Septimus and Thomasina do. I think that this shows that people in modern times are much less reserved than they used to be, and are more prepared to talk about feelings etc. It also illustrates that perhaps it was not usual to discuss personal lives at all let alone with people that are not family members. This might seem to the audience today as a strange occurrence, and might be perceived as very private behaviour, when in actual fact it was very common and all conversation was very reserved. Thomasina as a character is also used by Stoppard to create a lot of the humour in the play, both indirectly and directly. A large source of the humour is her conversation and argument with Septimus. She argues with Septimus over natural equations, leading to the line Armed thus, God could only make a cabinet. This produces humour in the scene, and the audience is again impressed that she can understand this concept fully enough to makes jokes on the subject. The humour comes from the fact that she has managed to undermine her tutors argument with one simple witty line. Quite a large proportion of the humour comes from Thomasinas intelligence and wit. During the play, there is much technical conversation about maths and science, both from the older characters and the modern ones. The humour that comes from Thomasinas intelligence helps to lighten the tone of various scenes in the play. For example, in an early scene, Thomasina and Septimus are discussing free will. The language that is used in the technical conversation could feasibly make it hard for the majority of the audience to follow therefore making the tone of the scene serious. However, Thomasina then announces Oh! I see now! The answer is perfectly obvious! As the conversation has previously been so puzzling, the way she decides she knows the answer is humorous to the audience. Added to this, the facial expression of Septimus would be quite shocked that Thomasina knows the answer, again bringing humour to the scene. In this way, Stoppard ensures that the audience likes Thomasina as a character and a person for comedy value if nothing else. The witty lines she brings to the play also ensures any audiences do not see her as a boring character they give the character of Thomasina more depth. A main technique of presenting Thomasina to the audience is by using the other characters in the play, from the old and modern scenes. A part of this is by having the character of Chloe in the modern time, who is both a contrasting and a similar character to Thomasina. Chloe is a much more aggressive, modern style character who uses far less informal language than Thomasina does during the play. She also seems less innocent than Thomasina. For example, Chloe says, If you dont want him, Ill have him. Is he married? This is a suggestive thing to say a direct contrast to Thomasinas opening line What is carnal embrace? Having this contrast with the more direct Chloe makes Thomasina seem much more naive, which again gives the audience the feeling of superiority. An audience is more likely to relate to a character that they do not feel inferior to so this is a clever method of Stoppards to push the audience into liking Thomasina. However, both characters are curious and inquisitive, asking the question Do you think Im the first person to think of this? I think that this illustrates that both Thomasina and Chloe have new ideas and are not afraid to be different. As Chloe is more of an outgoing character than Thomasina, this might make audiences subconsciously think of Thomasina as more entertaining also. The differences in time and tradition in the play become more apparent as the play continues we see similarities and differences between various characters. The biggest obvious contrast is the behaviour of the characters, as in the earlier time they are much more polite to one another and use more formal language. This is why Chloe has such a large effect on the perception of Thomasina Chloe uses slang terms occasionally and swears, whereas Thomasina is very polite and it is clear to see a lot of emphasis was put on manners in that time. These differences help the audience to see Thomasina as more innocent compared to both Chloes time and the time in which they are watching they play. The audience also would like her more because of it the language differences put Thomasina in a favourable light compared to many children her age today, also. Audience reactions today would also be different than in previous times, for example a girl enjoying maths and science is not unusual today and would not be much of a shock, but in the time of Thomasina it would have been considered strange (shown by the reactions of Lady Croom). The reactions of characters in earlier time periods are contrasting in points in the play, and this creates interest for the current audience as we are curious to see why these opinions are so. Another character that has a large effect on how we see Thomasina is Septimus, her tutor. The power struggle and arguments between them both have a large effect on how the audience views Thomasina. The relationship between them also has an effect on this. At the start of the play, they are sat down in a formal manner, introduced as tutor and pupil, and an audience might expect the relationship to be that way. However, there are many short, sharp exchanges between them in the play, such as this one: Thomasina: You did not like my discovery? Septimus: A fancy is not a discovery. Thomasina: A gibe is not a rebuttal. This exchange shows off how sharp they both are, but it also illustrates how intelligent Thomasina must be to keep up and even surpass his arguments. Audiences therefore respect her for realising she is clever enough to argue with him. At stages during the play, we see how Thomasina tries to impress Septimus and often tries to get his attention. For example, mid-way through the play she suddenly states, Mama is in love with Lord Byron. This would seem a shameless attempt to get Septimus to take interest in her, as he is engrossed in a book. However, I do not think audiences would see it as a spoilt thing to do many people would realise that Thomasina is just lonely as she has had little attention from her parents. Using Septimus as a friend to Thomasina is a clever technique by Stoppard to involve the audience and compel them to pity Thomasina. Within the earlier scenes in the play, Thomasinas intellect and wit mean that the audience sees her as a very mature character, and perhaps do not see her acting as if she is a young teenager. Therefore when she uses language that the audience might have expected her to use before the play began it seems as if she is being overly childish. At a few points during the play, we see Thomasina use word and phrases such as: Eurghhh! Oh, goody and Oh, phooey. These lines in the play are such a contrast to her usual scientific terms that the audience sees them as very childish perhaps endearing her further to the audience as it means that her language is, for once, inferior to that of an adult. By presenting Thomasina as a mature person, Stoppard creates an image of her that the audience can like both with the childish and the advanced language. Thomasina is also a contrasting type of person to the majority of modern teenagers; her language, hobbies, and manner are all of a very different style than they would be today. She is much more innocent than teenagers today are perceived, and this could also make her more endearing to modern-day audiences. The childish language she sometimes uses, such as Pooh! again illustrates this, as it is very un-aggressive and innocent compared to much of the language used today. As through the majority of the play the audience sees Thomasina as very intellectual and scientific, it is quite a dramatic change later on when she suddenly becomes more outgoing. In a later scene when Thomasina is older, she is fixated on learning to dance, and one of her speeches about it is: I must waltz, Septimus! I will be despised if I do not waltz! It is the most fashionable and gayest and boldest invention conceivable started in Germany! This speech from Thomasina is extremely unlike her way of speaking it is filled with superlatives (gayest, boldest etc) which it itself is not too unusual, unless it is combined with the fact she is talking about dancing and it becomes strange as previously she has not cared for that sort of thing. She also calls dancing an invention which is bizarre coming from Thomasina, who the audience knows is a scientific type of character and person. The audience is able to sense that she is trying to be different but are unsure of the reason this is a clever technique of Stoppards to get the audience feeling more involved in the play. Because of this new side to her, the audience also become fonder of Thomasina as a character and a person, as she suddenly gains more dimensions as a character. It is a subtle technique by the playwright of adapting the main opinion the audience has of Thomasina which is important as by this stage we are reaching the end of the play. It is also a complete contrast to her earlier speech about Cleopatra and love which again shows the change in her personality in the play. One major factor of the play that greatly affects how the audience perceives Thomasina is the fact that the whole play is set in two different time periods. With the more modern characters attempting to find out about Thomasina, the audience is indirectly told pieces of information about her and the entire household. When we are informed that Thomasina was entirely correct about the mathematical method that she was working on, and that It hasnt been around for much longer than, well, call it twenty years, and that its publishable the audience realises that Thomasina really was a genius and could have been famous as she had wished. This is ironic as in a way she was put down by Septimus for attempting the equations. Audience reaction to this would be split; part of them would feel sad that Thomasina was right all along, but this fact could also be perceived as satisfying for the audience. Having the modern characters in the play enables the audience to find out additional information, and so feel closer to the characters and more involved in the later stages of the play. The two time periods also drastically affect how we see the ending of the play, and how we perceive Thomasina towards the end of it. As we find out about Thomasinas death indirectly through the modern characters, it builds up further sadness for the audience than it otherwise might have done. Valentine says Oh the girl who died in the fire! We are also told she was dead before she had time to be famous. As the characters in the modern day did not know Thomasina, they state that she has died very bluntly. Using the word girl shows to the audience that now she is just another person that lived a long time ago, i. e. emphasising that there is nothing special about her. It is also a very casual word, showing that the modern characters do not really care about her death and have no reason to. This shocks the audience as we did not expect this to happen, and gives the impression of one person being very insignificant in the overall scale of time. This creates even further pity for Thomasina in the final stages of the play, as the audience knows what will happen to her. It also saddens the audience somewhat as we felt close to Thomasina in the earlier stages of the play. Telling us the outcome of the play before it reaches it is a subtle technique by Tom Stoppard of affecting the audiences final opinion of Thomasina. The overall ending of the play creates a lot of emotion around and about Thomasina, as the audience already knows what is going to happen. Thomasina is adamant that Septimus will teach her how to waltz. It is the first time during the play that we see Thomasina do anything rebellious or remotely outgoing. The candle is specifically mentioned in the scene, Septimus warns her Be careful with the flame. This increases the sadness for the audience as we know she dies in the fire, and is a clever technique of Stoppards to make the audience remember what will happen. However, in this scene we last see Thomasina happy as she has learnt to waltz as she wished. I think this scene is generated the way it is by Stoppard to ensure that the audience remembers Thomasina as a character with lots of depth. We also feel a lot of sadness for and towards her as we have seen Thomasina grow up. As she managed to fulfil her ambition to learn to waltz, however, it also has a slightly happy undertone as she would have died after doing something she wanted. The change that Thomasina undergoes throughout the play ensures that the audience can relate to her much more than might have been though at the beginning of the play. I think Stoppard would have planned this change in her character from the start so that he could manipulate the audience into really becoming fond of the one of the main characters in the play. The success of the play, in part, will depend on how the audience views Thomasina, and this is why the techniques Stoppard uses to present her to the audience are so important.